Nutritional Supplements Review

For Healthy Adults
Author:
Julian Ghadially, MPH
April 26, 2023

Summary

  • These supplements have the strongest evidence of benefit in healthy adults: dietary fiber, vitamin D, fish oil, and magnesium.
  • Many popular supplements have no benefits in healthy adults: multivitamins, vitamin A, vitamin B3, vitamin B6, vitamin E, selenium, ...the list goes on...
  • A few vitamins are effective for certain uses: folic acid for pregnancy, calcium for those at risk for osteoporosis, vitamin c for recovery from the common cold, and curcumin for metabolic syndrome and osteoarthritis

Introduction:

An Industry with Many False Claims and Risks

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The $11B vitamin industry is full of weak claims, fad trends, and health risks. In the words of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, "the routine and indiscriminate use of micronutrient supplements for the prevention of chronic disease is not recommended, given the lack of scientific evidence."

Of course, many nutritional supplements will hand-pick a favorable outcome from a single study to sell product. However, this is not how doctors decide what should go into your body.  

Why does it matter? Well, any supplements can carry an increased risks. For example, beta-carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E are associated with increases in mortality and/or certain types of cancer.2,3,4,5,14 We hope that this evidence review can help you figure out which vitamins have benefits that exceed the risk.

What you need to know before taking a supplement:

  1. How effective is the supplement (assuming you have a deficiency)?
  2. How safe is the supplement?
  3. Are you deficient?

This page will address these questions, based on all available studies, weighing the strength of evidence in each study. You can also take our assessment to get recommendations based on your age, sex, and health needs.

Topic #1: Academic Societies Advise Caution With Supplements

We have sourced several academic society positions on supplements. We have not added or removed any positions from the list guideline positions that the US Preventative Services Task Force put together, below.11

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Organization Statement
American Heart Association, 2014 “We recommend that healthy people get adequate nutrients by eating a variety of foods in moderation, rather than by taking supplements.” (6)
American Institute for Cancer Research, 2018 “Do not use dietary supplements for cancer prevention. Aim to meet nutritional needs through diet alone.” (7)
Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 2018 “Micronutrient supplements are warranted when requirements are not being met through the diet alone. However, the routine and indiscriminate use of micronutrient supplements for the prevention of chronic disease is not recommended, given the lack of scientific evidence.” (8)
Dietary Guidelines for Americans, USDA and US Department of Health and Human Services, 2020 “Nutritional needs should be met primarily through foods. The Dietary Guidelines recognizes, though, that in some cases, fortified foods and dietary supplements are useful when it is not possible otherwise to meet needs for one or more nutrients (e.g., during specific life stages such as pregnancy).” (9)
Canada Cancer Society, 2018 “The best way to get all the vitamins you need is to make healthy food choices; however, individuals are encouraged to discuss supplementation with vitamin D (1,000 U) during the fall and winter months with their physician.” (10).

To summarize these academic societies:

  1. Eating nutrient-dense foods should be a healthy individual’s primary nutritional strategy
  2. Scientific evidence is lacking for many supplemental nutrients in healthy individuals, so supplements should only be taken when there is a real deficiency. (See Appendix A for the most common deficiencies like dietary fiber and vitamin D)

Item #2. Our review only finds a few useful supplements

Our evidence review sources systematic reviews that use rigorous study selection methods that grade the strength of evidence, the potential for bias in included studies, how their methods controlled for confounding variable, etc.

In this section, we review the most popular nutritional supplement ingredients, with a focus on mortality, harms, and the largest causes of mortality (cardiovascular disease and cancer). If a popular supplement is taken for some other benefit, we present those too. Check out Appendix B for our detailed findings and references.

Above all else, the primary strategy for nutrition should be to eat a balanced diet of nutrient-dense foods, as outlined in the USDA's Dietary Guidelines.9

Supplements with the strongest evidence for healthy adults:

  1. Dietary fiber supplementation has consistent positive evidence for improved heart health, and 90% of women and >97% of men do not get their recommended allotment of fiber.9
  2. Vitamin D is recommended by most international guidelines for the prevention of osteoporosis, and >90% do not get enough vitamin D.9 However, evidence is not as consistent as with dietary fiber. For example, the US preventative task force does not recommend vitamin D, citing insufficient evidence.12 In Rejnmark's review on vitamin D, 8 of 12 studies show a reduction in mortality and 3 of 7 meta analyses show a reduction in respiratory infection risk.13‍
  3. Fish oil had several positive findings from large, early studies, but they have not been consistently replicated‍
  4. Magnesium has mixed results in studies across heart health, anxiety, and depression. Select studies show positive findings but they are only replicated in up to half of studies.

No benefit list 

The following supplements have no impact on mortality, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and any other claimed categories that we evaluated:

  1. Multivitamins do not impact mortality or cardiovascular disease. There is some weak data that they might reduce cancer, but several ingredients within multivitamins are associated with increased risks, including vitamin A, beta-carotene, vitamin E and selenium.
  2. Most multivitamin ingredients failed to show any positive results for healthy individuals (i.e., reduction in mortality, cancer, or cardiovascular disease), including: Vitamin A, Beta-carotene, Vitamin B3, Vitamin B6, Vitamin E, Selenium
  3. Selenium and Zinc did not have sufficient quality evidence to be reviewed for mortality, cancer, or heart (cardiovascular disease) benefits

Beneficial vitamins for special cases: 

  1. Folic acid drastically reduces neural tube birth defects when used before and after conception. It is important to take folic acid if you are planning to bear a child.
  2. Calcium is commonly recommended in clinical guidelines, alongside vitamin D, for postmenopausal women and older men.
  3. Vitamin C does not prevent common colds or respiratory infections, but data across studies show a significant reduction in the duration of common cold symptoms
  4. Using data from 7+ systematic reviews, turmeric and/or curcumin have been shown to correct fat levels, cholesterol levels, and blood pressure in metabolic syndrome patients. Curcumin also helps reduce pain in osteoarthritis.
  5. Iron supplementation is effective for helping avoid iron deficiency anemia caused by heavy menstruation, pregnancy, or an iron deficiency

See the evidence review table below for more, including in-depth findings and sources.

Item #3: Where to find responsible nutritional supplements

As you can hopefully tell from this review, our goal is to bring transparency to supplements and healthcare. We are one of the few supplement offerings that backs up their recommendations with holistic literature reviews (rather than hand-picked favorable studies).

We offer some of the healthiest multivitamins because we focus on the good ingredients and omit the bad.

  1. Backed by 300+ studies. While other brands use hand-picked studies, we gather evidence holistically, and only make recommendations when the majority of studies show benefit.
  2. Omitting the bad: 90% of other multivitamins include 3+ ingredients tied to cancer. We focus on the vitamins with positive benefits
  3. Certified in quality: Our products are NSF certified, which is recognized in the industry as the ultimate stamp of quality. Our products are made in facilities that are FDA-registered, and follow cGMP practices.

You can start building your supplement plan with an assessment or from our products page.

Figures and Tables

Appendix A: Deficiencies

Based on the 2020 USDA Dietary Guidelines. “Calcium, potassium, dietary fiber, and vitamin D are considered a public health concern for the general US population because low intakes are associated with health concerns.” (9)

Dietary Fiber, vitamin D, and calcium all are problematic deficiencies in the US. Based on the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, the majority of 19-50 year olds are also deficient in Vitamin C, Vitamin E, and Magnesium, although that doesn’t mean that taking supplementation solves the problem.

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Appendix B: Evidence Review

Ingredient Outcome Impact Highlights
Multivitamin Mortality No impact
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Heart (CVD) No impact
Note: CVD is cardiovascular disease Sources: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Cancer Low or no decrease
Studies conflicted on whether cancer was reduced or not. This meta-analysis also highlights a conflicting finding: there were multiple multivitamin ingredients that individually increased cancer, including beta-carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E. ... Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Harms Risk of cancer
Adverse events were experienced at the same rate for multivitamin groups versus comparison groups. However, multiple multivitamin ingredients individually increased cancer, including beta-carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E. ... Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Vitamin A and/or beta-carotene Mortality Low increase
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
CVD mortality Low increase
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Lung cancer Low increase
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Harms Increased cancer, CVD, others
Other harms include increased reversible yellowing of the skin and hip fractures. Note that CVD is cardiovascular disease. US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Vitamin B3 Mortality No impact
Only one randomized trial met their criteria Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Vitamin B6 Mortality Insufficient evidence
No studies met the quality requirements Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Heart (CVD) Insufficient evidence
No studies met the quality requirements Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Heart (CVD) Insufficient evidence
No studies met the quality requirements Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Vitamin C Mortality No impact
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Cancer No impact
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Common cold No impact
There was no impact on the number of common cold events. Source: Hemila et al, 2013
Common cold duration Reduced
Duration of common cold symptoms decreased Source: Hemila et al, 2013

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Continued (2 of 3)...

Ingredient Outcome Impact Highlights
Vitamin D Guidelines Positive Support
Dai, 2021 reviewed global society clinical guideline recommendations for vitamin D. Most recommend vitamin D for the elderly, and multiple recommend vitamin D for the general population. See recommendations below: UK NICE (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence): "...recommend that vitamin d supplementation be made available for the whole population 4 years old or more according to SACN findings" (which are 10 micrograms for general pop > 4 y/o) Scientific Advisory Council of Osteoporosis Canada: "for healthy adults at low risk of vitamin d deficiency, routine supplementation of 400-1000 IU daily is recommended" UK Guidelines for Prevention of Osteoporosis: "it is recommended that in postmenopausal women and men > 50 who are at increased risk of fracture, a daily dose of 800 IU of cholecalciferol (vitamin D) should be advised." Endocrine Society (US): "10-20 micrograms of vitamin D is recommended for men at risk for osteoporosis" US Preventive Services Task Force: "The current recommendation against supplementation with 400 IU or less of vitamin D for the primary prevention of fractures is primarily based on the finding of no benefit with supplementation at lower doses." Sources: Dai, 2021 (15).
Mortality Low or no impact
8 out of 12 systematic reviews showed a reduction in mortality from vitamin D Supplementation (Rejnmark, 2017) (13). The preventive services task force did not find a statistically significant reduction when combining across their studies. Sources: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11), Rejnmark, 2017 (13).
Heart (CVD) No impact
Only 2 of 9 meta-analyses showed that vitamin D reduced blodd pressure (Rejnmark, 2017). No impact according to the US Preventive Services Task force. Sources: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11); Rejnmark, 2017 (13).
Any Cancer No impact
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Bone Health Positive Impact
Note: this benefit is for select groups. Across the studies reviewed by this cochrane review, there was a statistically significant reduction in any fracture among elderly of calcium and vitamin d vs placebo (Avenell, 2014). Across the studies reviewed by this cochrane review, there was a small improvement 2.6% for bone mineral content in vitamin D deficient children (Winzenburg, 2010). Sources: Avenell, 2014 (16); Winzenburg, 2010 (17).
Respiratory Health Low or no impact
3 of 7 meta analyses of trials have shown vitamin D may reduce the risk of respiratory infection Source: Rejnmark, 2017 (13).
Harms Kidney Risk
2 of 3 large trials and 2 of 3 cohort studies showed an increased risk of kidney stones with 7 years of vitamin D use, especially above 1000 IU / day or more Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11)
Vitamin E Mortality No impact
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Heart (CVD) No impact
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Cancer Low or no increase
The large, SELECT trial showed a statistically significant increase in prostate cancer. However, using data from multiple studies, the US Preventive Services Task Force showed no difference in cancer rates between those that took vitamin E and those that did not. Sources: Klein, 2011 (14). US Preventive Services Task Force (11).
Harms Possibility of prostate cancer
Sources: Klein, 2011 (14). US Preventive Services Task Force (11).
Calcium Guidelines Positive Support
Note: this finding is for select groups Dai, 2021 reviewed global society clinical guideline recommendations for calcium. Most recommend calcium for the elderly, with the exception of the US Preventive Services Task Force. ... Sources: Dai, 2021 (15).
Mortality No impact
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Heart (CVD) No impact
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Cancer No impact
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Harms Risk of GI side effects
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Fish Oil Heart Health Positive or no impact
Multiple early, large randomized trials show cardioprotective benefits of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation, but more recent trials have failed to replicate results. This may be due to improved cardiovascular treatment, increased fish consumption, or dose differences in the study designs Source: Goel, 2018 (18).
Brain Health No impact
No difference in cognitive function scores in elderly supplemented with omega 3 PUFA & at risk for dementia (e.g., word learning, number memory tests) (Syndeham, 2012). A review of omega 3s in the prevention of psychosis disease found one small study that found a reduction in psychosis onset events after omega 3 supplementation, but the sample size was small with only 9 psychosis events. Higher quality evidence (larger sample size) would be needed to claim any benefit. Source: Sydenham, 2012 (19). Stafford, 2013
Harms Risk of mild GI side effects
Source: Sydenham, 2012 (19).
Folic Acid Mortality No impact
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Any Cancer Risk of cancer increase
Among people with non-cancerous tumors, there was a statistically significant increase in the odds of cancer Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Neural tube birth defects Drastic reduction in birth defects
Drastic reduction in neural tube defects. Not enough information for other defects. Source: De Regil, 2015

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Continued (3 of 3)...

Ingredient Outcome Impact Highlights
Magnesium Mortality Insufficient evidence
No studies met the quality requirements Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Heart (CVD) Insufficient evidence
No studies met the quality requirements Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Cancer Insufficient evidence
No studies met the quality requirements Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Sleep performance Positive or no impact
An Iranian review with good study aggregation methods found that 2 of 5 studies found improvement in some aspect of sleep (slow wave sleep time, total sleep time, etc.). Arab, 2022. (20).
Anxiety Positive or no impact
4 of 8 randomized trials in mildly anxious adults showed a decrease in subjective anxiety scores. 4 of 7 studies on premenstrual syndrome anxiety found a decrease in subjective anxiety. Source: Boyle, 2017 (21).
Heart Health Positive impact
Small but significant reduction in blood pressure; Kass, 2012 (22).
Harms Risk of GI side effects
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Iron Mortality Insufficient evidence
No studies met the quality requirements Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Heart (CVD) Insufficient evidence
No studies met the quality requirements Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Cancer Insufficient evidence
No studies met the quality requirements Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Zinc Mortality Insufficient evidence
No studies met the quality requirements Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Heart (CVD) Insufficient evidence
No studies met the quality requirements Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Cancer Insufficient evidence
No studies met the quality requirements Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Curcumin / Tumeric Extract Metabolic Syndrome Positive impact
Patients with metabolic syndrome had a statistically significant reduction in multiple heart health indicators across 7-18 systematic reviews. Health indicators included diastolic blood pressure, triglyceride (fat) levels, BMI, waist circumference, total cholesterol, leptin, and others. The strongest finding was for lowered diastolic blood pressure. Source: Rolfe, 2020 (23).
Osteoarthritis Positive impact
Curcumin statistically significantly reduced pain and helped reinstate physical function / mobility in arthritis patients when compared to placebo. Data was aggregated across seven systematic reviews. Source: Rolfe, 2020 (23).
Alzheimer's Disease Positive or no impact
3 of 5 studies in healthy, non-demented elderly found either reduced cognitive decline or improved cognitive performance over time, relative to placebo Source: Voulgaropoulou, 2019 (24).
Harms Risk of mild GI side effects
23 systematic reviews reported no serious adverse events; 15 reviews detailed adverse events which were all minor and included GI symptoms (nausea, diarrhea), headaches, sleepiness, hypertension, etc. Source: Rolfe, 2020 (23).
Selenium Mortality No impact
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Heart (CVD) No impact
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).
Cancer No impact
Source: US Preventive Services Task Force, 2018 (11).

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References

  1. “FDA 101: Dietary Supplements.” US Food and Drug Administration, June 2022, https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/fda-101-dietary-supplements.
  2. Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG, Gluud C. Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: Systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2007;297:842–57
  3. Kamangar F, Emadi A. Vitamin and mineral supplements: do we really need them? Int J Prev Med. 2012 Mar;3(3):221-6. PMID: 22448315; PMCID: PMC3309636.
  4. The ATBC Cancer Prevention Study Group. The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1994;330:1029–35.
  5. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, Balmes J, Cullen MR, Glass A, et al. Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:1150–5.
  6. American Heart Association. Vitamin Supplements: Hype or Help for Healthy Eating. https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/nutrition-basics/vitamin-supplements-hype-or-help-for-healthy-eating. Accessed: July 31, 2020.
  7. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Continuous Update Project Expert Report 2018. Recommendations and public health and policy implications. https://www.wcrf.org/sites/default/files/Recommendations.pdf. Accessed: July 31, 2020.
  8. Marra MV, Bailey RL. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Micronutrient Supplementation. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2018;118(11):2162-73. PMID: 30366569. 10.1016/j.jand.2018.07.022
  9. U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025. 9th Edition. December 2020. Available at DietaryGuidelines.gov.
  10. Canada Cancer Society. Nutrition and Fitness (Healthy Eating, Vitamin D). http://www.cancer.ca/en/prevention-and-screening/reduce-cancer-risk/make-healthy- choices/eat-well/should-i-take-a-vitamin-d-supplement/?region=on. Accessed: July 31, 2020.
  11. O’Connor EA, Evans CV, Ivlev I, et al. Vitamin, Mineral, and Multivitamin Supplementation for the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer: A Systematic Evidence Review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2021 Jun. (Evidence Synthesis, No. 209.) Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK581642/
  12. The US Preventive Services Task Force; Grossman DC, Curry SJ, Owens DK, Barry MJ, Caughey AB, Davidson KW, Doubeni CA, Epling JW, Jr., Kemper AR, et al. Vitamin D, Calcium, or Combined Supplementation for the Primary Prevention of Fractures in Community-Dwelling Adults: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. Jama 2018;319(15):1592-9. Doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.3185
  13. Rejnmark L, Bislev LS, Cashman KD, Eiríksdottir G, Gaksch M, Grübler M, Grimnes G, Gudnason V, Lips P, Pilz S, van Schoor NM, Kiely M, Jorde R. Non-skeletal health effects of vitamin D supplementation: A systematic review on findings from meta-analyses summarizing trial data. PLoS One. 2017 Jul 7;12(7):e0180512. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180512. PMID: 28686645; PMCID: PMC5501555.
  14. Klein EA, Thompson IM Jr, Tangen CM, Crowley JJ, Lucia MS, Goodman PJ, Minasian LM, Ford LG, Parnes HL, Gaziano JM, Karp DD, Lieber MM, Walther PJ, Klotz L, Parsons JK, Chin JL, Darke AK, Lippman SM, Goodman GE, Meyskens FL Jr, Baker LH. Vitamin E and the risk of prostate cancer: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT). JAMA. 2011 Oct 12;306(14):1549-56. doi: 10.1001/jama.2011.1437. PMID: 21990298; PMCID: PMC4169010.
  15. Dai Z, McKenzie JE, McDonald S, Baram L, Page MJ, Allman-Farinelli M, Raubenheimer D, Bero LA. Assessment of the Methods Used to Develop Vitamin D and Calcium Recommendations-A Systematic Review of Bone Health Guidelines. Nutrients. 2021 Jul 15;13(7):2423. doi: 10.3390/nu13072423. PMID: 34371932; PMCID: PMC8308557.
  16. Avenell A, Mak JC, O'Connell D. Vitamin D and vitamin D analogues for preventing fractures in post-menopausal women and older men. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Apr 14;2014(4):CD000227. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD000227.pub4. PMID: 24729336; PMCID: PMC7032685.
  17. Winzenberg TM, Powell S, Shaw KA, Jones G. Vitamin D supplementation for improving bone mineral density in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010 Oct 6;(10):CD006944. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006944.pub2. PMID: 20927753.
  18. Goel A, Pothineni NV, Singhal M, Paydak H, Saldeen T, Mehta JL. Fish, Fish Oils and Cardioprotection: Promise or Fish Tale? Int J Mol Sci. 2018 Nov 22;19(12):3703. doi: 10.3390/ijms19123703. PMID: 30469489; PMCID: PMC6321588.
  19. Sydenham E, Dangour AD, Lim WS. Omega 3 fatty acid for the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Jun 13;(6):CD005379. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD005379.pub3. PMID: 22696350.
  20. Arab A, Rafie N, Amani R, Shirani F. The Role of Magnesium in Sleep Health: a Systematic Review of Available Literature. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2023 Jan;201(1):121-128. doi: 10.1007/s12011-022-03162-1. Epub 2022 Feb 19. PMID: 35184264.
  21. Boyle NB, Lawton C, Dye L. The Effects of Magnesium Supplementation on Subjective Anxiety and Stress-A Systematic Review. Nutrients. 2017 Apr 26;9(5):429. doi: 10.3390/nu9050429. PMID: 28445426; PMCID: PMC5452159.
  22. Kass L, Weekes J, Carpenter L. Effect of magnesium supplementation on blood pressure: a meta-analysis. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2012 Apr;66(4):411-8. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2012.4. Epub 2012 Feb 8. PMID: 22318649.
  23. Rolfe, V., Mackonochie, M., Mills, S., & MacLennan, E. (2020). Turmeric / curcumin and health outcomes: A meta-review of systematic reviews. European Journal of Integrative Medicine, 40. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eujim.2020.101252
  24. Voulgaropoulou SD, van Amelsvoort TAMJ, Prickaerts J, Vingerhoets C. The effect of curcumin on cognition in Alzheimer's disease and healthy aging: A systematic review of pre-clinical and clinical studies. Brain Res. 2019 Dec 15;1725:146476. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146476. Epub 2019 Sep 24. PMID: 31560864.
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